Student Involvement and Lifelong Skill Development in Araling Panlipunan: A Study Among Grade 10 Students in Guimba, Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Abstract

Social Studies Education focusing on Contemporary Issues is one of the subjects at the Grade 10 level covering cultural, environmental, and social issues. These topics pose challenges for social studies teachers to develop innovative learning activities. This study explores the impact of learning activities in Araling Panlipunan (AP) at Grade 10 level on the acquisition of lifelong skills. Utilizing a mixed-method research design, data from 362 randomly selected student-respondents across four public high schools in Guimba, Nueva Ecija, Philippines revealed that students were actively engaged in the AP learning activities. However, among these activities, only research writing demonstrated a statistically significant relationship with the acquisition of lifelong skills—though this correlation was negative. Problems emerged in the correlation include teaching strategies, motivation in learning, and availability of learning materials. Recommendations to improve student’s acquisition of lifelong skills are exposure to outdoor activities like visiting museums and integration of technologies in teaching social studies.

Introduction

Social Studies, known as Araling Panlipunan (AP), is an interdisciplinary field composed of different disciplines, terminologies, principles, and philosophies discussed inside classroom settings. It requires learning activities and teaching approaches that relate to 21st century lifelong skills. Engaging students in AP involves more than retelling of stories as it requires student performance and active participation through experiential learning activities and learner-centered approaches (Crisolo et al., 2017). The Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) draws upon the work of numerous scholars who highlighted experience as the focus of human learning and development such as the pioneering studies and evaluations of John Dewey, Carl Rogers, and Jean Piaget (Passarelli & Kolb, 2023). To affirm development from a dynamic and holistic process of learning, Kong (2021) suggests the promotion of experience as a stimulus for learners’ development and enhancement. Thus, the implementation of innovative teaching strategies is significant to the enhancement of the classroom through experiential activities (Chapman et al., 2016). This implies that experience-based learning activities have a significant impact on students, enabling them to participate in class discussion and exchange ideas, perspectives, and position on various topics and issues (Albort-Morant & Leal-Rodriguez, 2018).

According to Mendoza (2024), the decline in student’s appreciation for AP is due to the stigma linked with extensive terminologies, names, and years that must be memorized and familiarized. This problem makes it a challenge for social studies teachers to prepare learning activities suitable for students (Dinama et al., 2016, Grant et al., 2022). The integration of dynamic teaching strategies related to 21st century lifelong skills was recommended (Pana et al., 2017, Mutiani et al., 2021). In the Grade 10 curriculum, Contemporary Issues is the focus of AP, focusing on environmental, cultural, social, and gender-related topics. It requires experiential learning activities and learner-centered approaches for the self-development of students, mainly in the pre-adolescence age group (16-17 years old). Hence, the students’ involvement in various experiential learning activities in AP is expected to yield positive outcomes such as knowledge, values, cultural sensitivity, community participation, and broad global perspectives (Baker & Robinson, 2016, Deeg et al., 2016).

Experiential learning activities include leadership training, tree planting, clean-up drives, feeding programs, camping, field trips, community services, quiz bee, debates, research writing, slogan and poster making, creating documentary films, role playing, essay writing, and news reporting. These constitute 50% of the students’ total grade in accordance with the Grade 10 AP curriculum. Studies reveal that learner-centered pedagogies in social studies are associated with the development of students’ leadership and socio-cultural skills (Tyurina et al., 2022; Jacobsen et al., 2022; Garcia 2021; Hidayati, 2024).

This research study examines the extent of involvement of Grade 10 public-high school students in experiential learning activities in AP and its influence on the acquisition of lifelong skills, specifically leadership, responsibility, and social and cross cultural competencies. It seeks to determine the correlation between the active participation in these learning experiences and the development of such skills among the student-respondents. Moreover, it also identifies the challenges of teaching AP and proposed actionable solutions that could enhance instructional effectiveness and student acquisition of lifelong skills.

Materials and Methods

A mixed-method research design was utilized in this study employing a survey that included both a self-structured questionnaire-checklist and an adopted questionnaire-checklist as instruments in gathering data. The descriptive method involved the collection of numerical data to test hypotheses or answer questions concerning status. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) descriptive research as a purposive process of gathering, analysing, classifying, and tabulating of data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends, and cause – effect relationships to make adequate interpretations with or without the aid of statistical method. Additionally, correlational research design was used to determine the significant relationship between independent and dependent variables in the study (Woodworth, 1938). At the end of the survey was an open-ended question to determine the challenges in learning contemporary issues in AP 10. This part was added to further determine student’s perspectives on acquiring lifelong skills from different learning activities in AP.

Table 1. Respondents of the Study

Table 1.

No.	Name of Study School	Total Population of Grade 10 Students	%	No. of Student-Respondents
1	Bartolome Sangalang National High School	528	67	242
2	Triala National High School	106	13	47
3	Galvan National High School	127	16	58
4	Pacac High School	33	4	15
	TOTAL	794	100	362

Table 1 shows the four public high schools selected from a total of eight public high schools in Guimba, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. These schools were selected based on their type and students’ population: Bartolome Sangalang National High School – classified as a mega school, Triala National High School and Galvan National High School- both large schools, and Pacac National High School – a small school. The research site was selected due to its location and its diverse range of public high schools with dynamic learning activities in AP, which are potential contributors to the development of lifelong skills among students. Stratified random sampling was used to identify 362 Grade 10 student-respondents for the study. The population size is 794. The hypothesized percentage frequency of the outcome factor in the population (p) is 50%+/-5, with a 5% confidence limit. The design effect (DEFF) for cluster surveys is 1. Additionally, an online tool from openepi.com was utilized in determining the sample size.

Formula:

A questionnaire consisting of a checklist and rating scale on acquiring lifelong skills through involvement in learning activities in AP among Grade 10 students in public high schools was utilized to gather research data. A combination of self-structured and modified survey questionnaires was developed and pre-tested for reliability. The first part of the survey focused on their involvement in different learning activities in AP based on experiential learning activities and learner centered-based approach. Part II discussed the 21^st century lifelong skills, which was adapted and simplified from Personal Student Leadership Assessment Questionnaire (PSLAQ, 2008) and from Cultural Competence Self-Assessment Checklist (CCSC, 2017). The questionnaire consisted of 15 items for leadership and responsibility skills and 15 items for socio and cross-cultural skills. The respondents would score an item based on how often they used such kinds of skills in life and career. Lastly, the third part included an open-ended question to identify problems in learning Araling Panlipunan. The student-respondents indicated the frequency based on experiences that affected their leadership and responsibility skills as well as their social and cross-cultural skills with different variables by choosing one from the four options: Strongly Agree (SA); Moderately Agree (MA); Slightly Agree (SLA); Disagree (D).

The survey questionnaire was evaluated using the measure of internal consistency to establish its content reliability and construct validity using Cronbach’s Alpha (1957). The reliability of the items was evaluated using the measure of internal consistency, specifically the computed Cronbach’s Alpha. For the students’ responses on the acquisition of lifelong skills specifically on their leadership skills and social responsibility, the computed Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.73 or 73%, indicating an acceptable internal consistency. For the students’ responses on acquisition of lifelong skills specifically on their leadership skills and social responsibility, the computed Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.84 or 84%, which means there is a good internal consistency on the students’ responses.

In gathering the data, consent was approved by the Schools Division of Nueva Ecija and endorsed to the School Principals of the four selected high schools in Guimba, Nueva Ecija before administering the research instruments to the student-respondents. For ethical considerations, the consent of the student-respondents was properly communicated to their respective advisers and parents. The researcher personally distributed the instruments during the student-respondents’ free time, with the assistance from other AP teachers to ensure success in the administration and retrieval.

The data gathered were statistically analyzed using frequency, percentage, mean, Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation, Spearman rho Product Moment Correlation, and Eta Value. Descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentage, and cross tabulation for multiple responses were used to describe student involvement in AP learning activities. Spearman rho and Chi-square tests were used to analyze the relationships between student involvement in learning activities in Araling Panlipunan and the acquisition of lifelong skills.

Results and Discussion

Involvement of Student-Respondents in Learning Activities in Araling Panlipunan

Table 2 shows that student-respondents were involved more than thrice in conducting feeding programs, community services, and field trips under the experiential-learning activities as well as writing essays, role plays, and news reports under the learner-centered based activities. This means that Grade 10 students taking Contemporary Issues are actively engaged in civic activities and demonstrate awareness of their community. Tyurina et al. (2022) explain that the project method in the classroom positively impacts the development of leadership and social skills. Since Grade 10 students are exposed in civic activities and community engagement, the school-based activities they participate in foster resourcefulness, leadership, and socialization, which are the objectives of experiential-learning activities and learner-centered based activities that contribute to lifelong skills.

Table 2. Respondents’ Involvement in Different Learning Activities in Araling Panlipunan

Table 2.

Learning Activities in Araling Panlipunan Total Respondents (n=362)		No Response		Once		Twice		Thrice		More than Thrice
		f	%	f	%	f	%	f	%	f	%
		Experiential Learning Activities	Tree Planting	113	31.2	143	39.5	71	19.6	20	5.5	15	4.1
			Clean-Up Drive	165	45.6	88	24.3	60	16.6	26	7.2	23	6.4
			Leadership Training	169	46.7	120	33.1	28	10.5	23	6.4	12	3.3
			Feeding Program	152	42.0	111	30.7	28	7.7	24	6.6	47	13.0
			Camping	136	37.6	128	35.4	48	13.3	30	8.3	20	5.5
			Fieldtrip	106	29.3	179	49.4	36	9.9	17	4.7	24	6.6
			Community Service	191	52.8	92	24.4	36	9.9	19	5.2	24	6.6
			Learner-centered Based Activities	Quiz Bee	124	34.3	144	39.8	35	9.7	27	7.5	32	8.8
				Debate	157	43.4	124	34.3	37	10.2	17	4.7	27	7.5
				Writing a Research	209	57.7	115	31.8	32	8.8	2.0	0.6	5.0	1.1
				Slogan Making	73	20.2	164	45.3	60	16.6	28	7.7	37	10.2
				Essay	111	30.7	125	34.5	48	13.3	33	9.1	45	12.4
				Role Playing	96	26.5	109	30.1	62	17.1	27	7.5	68	18.8
				News Report	139	38.4	113	31.2	2.0	39.0	26	7.2	45	12.4
				Poster Making	88	24.3	152	42.0	48	13.3	35	9.7	39	10.8
				Film Viewing	123	34.0	168	46.4	27	7.5	11	3.0	33	9.1
				Film Making	154	42.5	173	47.8	11	3.0	9.0	2.5	4.0	4.1

Jacobsen et al. (2022) add that through transformational and transactional activities and training, students cultivate attributes such as responsibility and accountability, which are also essential for lifelong skills. The findings revealed that learning activities in AP contributed to student development particularly in leadership and social skills.

Extent of the Acquired Lifelong Skills of the Student-Respondents

Table 3 shows a weighted mean of 3.53, verbally described as “strongly agree”, in acquiring leadership and responsibility skills. This means that student-respondents embodied leadership and responsibility, valuing respect, helping others and maintaining cleanliness in the community. On the other hand, the student-respondents had moderate leadership skills in areas such as speaking in front of the class, leading a group, and applying different leadership styles. The findings indicated that students possessed innate leadership and responsibility skills, influenced by individuals they consider as role models in the community (Dolan & Redmond, 2014). These role models may include parents, family members, peers, and community figures who exhibit commendable leadership attributes.

Table 3. Student-Respondents’ Ratings on the Extent of the Acquired Leadership and Responsibility Skills

Table 3.

Leadership and Responsibility Skills	Student- Respondents Ratings
	WM	VI
I am more active in my community.	3.38	SA
I can be a leader and a follower.	3.41	SA
I became a leader in a group project and created a sense of teamwork.	3.38	SA
I am more confident speaking in class with people from different backgrounds.	3.09	MA
I have a better understanding of how to treat people.	3.60	SA
I have an idea of different leadership styles.	3.18	MA
I feel I could lead a group successfully.	3.23	MA
I am better at expressing my ideas in group settings.	3.27	SA
Group projects motivate me to perform well.	3.45	SA
I enjoy working with another student.	3.52	SA
I can accomplish tasks assigned to me.	3.50	SA
I clean up and put away garbage after I use them.	3.64	SA
I speak politely and kindly to everyone.	3.48	SA
I respect people who are older than me.	3.81	SA
I help others to the best of my ability.	3.67	SA
OWM	3.53	SA

Legend:

3.25 - 4.00 Strongly Agree (SA)1.75 - 2.49 Slightly Agree (SLA)

2.50 - 3.24 Moderately Agree (MA)1.00-1.74 Disagree (D)

Martinelli et al. (2017) emphasize that leadership skills begin to develop early in life and are enhanced over time. This implies that leadership skill development begins at home, shaped by natural tendencies, and nurtured through guidance from parents and family members. Le (2015) further explains that mentorship and participation in leadership development programs enhance one’s ability to lead others, which positively impacts socialization. Table 4 presents the social and cross-cultural skills acquired by student-respondents with an overall weighted mean of 3.38, verbally described as “strongly agree”. The findings showed that most student-respondents were able to interact respectfully and effectively with others, tolerate cultural differences, and introduce their own culture to others. However, they demonstrated moderate socio-cultural skills in areas such as judging others, communicating effectively, and challenging racist behavior. The results suggested that Grade 10 students were generally able to socialize though they exhibited lower proficiency in communication. Aleksandrova (2016) emphasizes the importance of acquiring socialization skills, noting their relevance to student’s personal development.

Table 4. Student-Respondents’ Ratings on the Extent of their Acquired Social and Cross-Cultural Skills

Table 4.

Social and Cross-Cultural Skills	Student- Respondents Ratings
	WM	VI
I see positively that every person is different and unique.	3.46	SA
I am able to appreciate my own ethnic, cultural, and racial identity.	3.41	SA
I am able to introduce my culture to others.	3.51	SA
I am comfortable when I encounter differences in race, color, religion, sexual orientation, language, and ethnicity.	3.36	SA
I am able to judge what are appropriate, normal, or superior behaviours, values, and communication styles through the influence of my cultural perspective.	3.15	MA
I know the differences in color, culture, and ethnicity are important for an individual’s identity.	3.42	SA
I recognize that culture changes over time and can vary from person to person, as does attachment to culture.	3.49	SA
I recognize that achieving cultural competence involves a commitment to learning over a lifetime.	3.38	SA
I can interact respectfully and effectively with individuals and groups.	3.72	SA
I am able to communicate with people that are different from my communication style.	3.20	MA
I can act in ways that demonstrate respect for the culture and beliefs of others.	3.53	SA
I can challenge others who are behaving in racist and/or discriminatory manner.	3.23	MA
I seek out people who challenge me to maintain and increase the cross-cultural skills I have.	3.21	MA
I am flexible to work hard with others with diverse colleagues.	3.33	SA
I build a good relationship and create connections with people who are different from me.	3.26	SA
OWM	3.38	SA

Legend:

3.25 - 4.00 Strongly Agree (SA)1.75 - 2.49 Slightly Agree (SLA)

2.50 - 3.24 Moderately Agree (MA)1.00-1.74 Disagree (D)

The findings meaningfully reflected that various learning activities in AP contributed to the student’s socialization skills, particularly through group-based activities even though communication remains a relative weakness. This was supported by Day et al. (2014), Garcia (2021), and Hidayati (2024) who highlight that collaboration through involvement in school activities where social behavior, effective leadership, and conflict resolution are practiced can significantly enhance social skills.

Relationship Between Involvement in Specific AP Learning Activities and the Acquisition of Leadership, Responsibility, and Social and Cross-Cultural Skills

Table 5. Relationship of Specific Learning Activities in AP and Acquisition of Lifelong Skills

Table 5.

AP Learning Activities		Leadership Skills		Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
		r	p -value	r	p -value
		Experiential Learning Activities	Tree Planting	0.048	0.359	0.029	0.576
			Clean-Up Drive	-0.062	0.240	-0.008	0.882
			Leadership Training	0.005	0.922	-0.019	0.723
			Feeding Program	0.015	0.773	0.098	0.061
			Camping	-0.006	0.907	0.043	0.413
			Fieldtrip	0.083	0.115	0.057	0.282
			Community Service	-0.014	0.793	0.027	0.605
			Learner-Centered Based Activities	Quiz Bee	-0.029	0.576	0.053	0.312
				Debate	0.057	0.282	0.040	0.447
				Writing a Research	-0.075	0.155	-.104*	0.048
				Slogan Making	-0.050	0.346	0.046	0.385
				Essay	-0.027	0.614	0.044	0.404
				Role Playing	0.014	0.791	0.080	0.129
				News Report	0.015	0.771	-0.019	0.717
				Poster Making	-0.027	0.608	0.002	0.973
				Film Viewing	-0.083	0.114	-0.006	0.904
				Film Making	0.044	0.407	0.000	0.995

Legend:

*means significant at 0.05 alpha level

**means highly significant at 0.01 alpha level

Table 5 shows that writing research, a learner-centered-based activity and a requirement in Contemporary Issues of AP, was negatively correlated with social and cross-cultural skills (r = - 104, p < 0.05). The analysis provided sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis, confirming a significant negative relationship between respondents’ learning activities encountered in AP and the acquisition of lifelong skills. These findings implied that students involved in writing research tended to experience reduced socialization. This may be attributed to the demanding nature of research, which requires substantial time, focus, effort, and cognitive engagement. Writing comprehensive research is undeniably challenging to accomplish and may limit opportunities for socialization among students. However, the findings also suggested that writing research contributed positively to the development of personal attitudes such as responsibility, commitment, motivation and academic engagement (Martello et al., 2015).

Relationship Between Students’ Involvement in A Learning Activities and their Lifelong Skills

Table 6 shows that student involvement in AP learning activities and acquiring lifelong skills have no significant correlation. Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. Based on the findings, the experiential-learning activities and learner-centered based activities utilized in teaching Contemporary Issues in AP did not significantly influence the development of lifelong skills, specifically leadership and social skills.

Table 6. Relationship between AP Learning Activities and Lifelong Skills

Table 6.

AP Learning Activities	Leadership Skills		Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
	r	p -value	r	p -value
Experiential-Learning Approach	-0.019	0.725	0.081	0.122
Learner-Centered Based Approach	-0.037	0.481	0.021	0.684

Legend:

* means significant at 0.05 alpha level

** means highly significant at 0.01 alpha level

These findings suggested that observed relationships could be due to chance and not strong enough to be considered meaningful. These results suggested that, at the broader level, the teaching and learning approaches used in AP did not have a measurable direct relationship with students’ development of leadership or social and cross-cultural skills. This contrasts with the more detailed-activity level analysis (see Table 5), which revealed that certain specific activities such as research writing, showed weak but statistically significant relationships with social and cross-cultural skills.

Problems and Solutions in Teaching and Learning Araling Panlipunan

Since there was no correlation between AP learning activities and the acquisition of lifelong skills among Grade 10 students, open-ended questions were given to determine the problems encountered in teaching AP. The responses revealed three key insights: a) teacher-related factor; b) student-related factor; and c) resources-related factor. According to the student-respondents, the teacher-related factor was the most common issue, which pertains to the strategies and approaches used in teaching AP, specifically the Contemporary Issues. One student narrated “Masyadong mahigpit at istrikto ang mga guro sa Araling Panlipunan sa aming mga estudyante”. Another added that “Maraming pinapasulat si Ma’am at pinagsasaulo kami ng mga pangalan ng tao, petsa, at lugar, kaya boring ‘yung Araling Panlipunan.”

Despite these concerns, students also expressed appreciation for performance-based tasks. One noted “Gumagawa kami ng mga documentary film o kaya research study kaya lumalabas kami ng school para kumuha ng data, minsan nakakatakot yung mga ini-interview namin.” Another commented “Sumusulat kami ng essays at nagdradrawing kami ng mga posters.” These narratives implied that students tended to enjoy performance-based tasks in AP 10, especially focusing on Contemporary Issues, even if they find teaching strategies rigid or monotonous. Regarding the student-related factor, which reflects the students’ interest and motivation, several student-respondents shared their experiences. One said “Minsan inaantok ako sa oras ng Araling Panlipunan, kaya ‘di ko naiintindihan ‘yung topic tungkol sa kultura.” Another remarked “Hindi ko talaga ma-appreciate ang Araling Panlipunan, ang boring kasi.” These responses indicated that both the class schedule and teaching strategy affected students’ interest and motivation to engage with the subject.

On the resource-related factor, student-respondents expressed confusion due to inconsistencies across various learning materials. One student shared “‘Yung totoo, iba-iba ‘yung sinasabi ng internet, sa libro at sa tinuturo ni sir, kaya nalilito ako… Pero iniisip ko na lang ‘yung mas makatotohanan na posible talagang mangyari sa totoong buhay.” This highlights students’ uncertainty when faced with differing information from the internet, textbooks, and classroom instruction—especially when discussing societal issues, which are central to Contemporary Issues in AP 10. Another student noted “May mga words talaga na masyadong malalim at hindi ko naiintindihan, lalo na sa lesson noon sa World History, ang daming mga terms na kailangan talaga iresearch pa.” This suggests that some learning materials contain complex terminology that students struggle to comprehend without additional research.

Despite these challenges, student-respondents proposed solutions based on their own experiences. One shared, “Ang ginagawa ko para ma-overcome ang problema ko sa pag-aaral ng Araling Panlipunan ay maghanap ng mga libro o kaya sa internet na reliable source tapos nagbabasa ako.” Another added “Dahil nae-enjoy ko ang mamasyal, ‘di nawawala ang pagbisita ko sa mga museums, somehow do’n ko naa-appreciate ang AP, lalo at nando’n ang culture ng isang lugar.” These narratives suggested that students actively sought alternative learning strategies, such as consulting reliable online sources, reading supplementary materials, and visiting museums. For them, the most effective remedy was engaging in research and expanding their exposure to diverse educational resources, including technology and experiential learning.

Conclusion

Grade 10 students in public high schools, typically aged 16 and in the adolescent stage, are at the beginning of their maturity development. Contemporary Issues, a core component of Social Studies Education at this level, introduces students to significant societal challenges and concerns within their communities. As such, AP 10 plays a vital role in preparing students to engage with real-world cultural, environmental, and social issues through critical discussion and analysis.

This study examined the effectiveness of learning activities utilized in teaching Contemporary Issues in AP 10 in relation to the acquisition of lifelong skills among students. The findings revealed a statistically significant negative correlation between writing research and social and cross-cultural skills, suggesting that increased engagement in research activities may limit students’ opportunities for social interaction. In addition, experiential and learner-centered activities employed in the classroom showed no significant relationship with the acquisition of lifelong skills among Grade 10 students.

These results highlight the need to improve teaching strategies in Contemporary Issues in AP to properly instill lifelong skills among students. Based on the themes extracted from the problems encountered by the student-respondents in learning Contemporary Issues in AP 10, the integration of modern technologies is important to create more interactive and engaging learning activities. Since the identified learning activities are primarily classroom-based, the role of home-parenting becomes essential in supporting the development of lifelong skills. Parents are encouraged to provide follow-up support and reinforcement at home. Finally, the study suggests that other factors – personality types, attitudes, and behavior – may influence the acquisition of lifelong skills. Future research should explore these dimensions to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how lifelong competencies are cultivated among adolescents.

Ethical Statement

In gathering the data, consent was approved by the Schools Division of Nueva Ecija and endorsed to the School Principals of the four selected high schools in Guimba, Nueva Ecija before administering the research instruments to the student-respondents. For ethical considerations, the consent of the student-respondents was properly communicated to their respective advisers and parents. The researcher personally distributed the instruments during the student-respondents’ free time with the assistance from other Araling Panlipunan teachers to ensure success in the administration and retrieval.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest related to the conduct and publication of this research. All procedures followed were in accordance with institutional and ethical standards, and there were no financial or personal relationships that could have influenced the outcomes of this study.

Acknowledgements

To all who contributed to this study, our heartfelt gratitude and thanks: the Schools Division of Nueva Ecija headed by Dr. Ronaldo Pozon, the School Principals of the four selected junior high schools in the Municipality of Guimba, and to the selected Grade 10 students who participated in the survey. I would also like to give thanks to Dr. Marietta D. Agustin and Dr. John Mark Bondoc of Wesleyan University – Philippines for their guidance and support. To our families and friends, this piece of work is dedicated to all of you.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies

This work was prepared entirely by the author without the use of generative AI or AI-assisted technologies.

Data Availability

All data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper.

Author Contribution

JLMM: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Research administration.

Funding

The author declares that no specific grant from public, commercial, or nonprofit organizations was received for this study.

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